The 18th century, traditionally referred to in historical literature as the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, was characterized by the struggle of a developing capitalist society with feudalism, the awakening of nations, and fundamental changes in the culture of European peoples. It has always attracted the attention of specialists of various sciences and knowledge. At the same time, its transitional nature, inconsistency and dynamism of historical phenomena at that time made it difficult to study.
In recent years, the Soviet Union and other socialist countries have increased their attention to Education in Central and South-Eastern Europe1 due to the urgency of the problem of historical transition periods. At the same time, an approach to the study of Enlightenment in the context of historical and cultural development has been outlined. Various aspects of the cultural history of the peoples of the region under consideration in the second half of the XVIII - early XIX centuries were reflected in a number of collective works, yearbooks, and collections published in the USSR, 2 as well as in reports of Soviet scientists at international congresses of historians .3 Monographs appeared on the Enlightenment and development of artistic culture in certain lands during this period4 .
1 V. I. Lenin used the term "Eastern Europe" in the pre-October period, referring to Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, and Russia. In 1912, he wrote: "In Eastern Europe - in the Balkans, in Austria, and in Russia - we see, along with areas of highly developed capitalism, the oppression of the masses by feudalism, absolutism, and thousands of remnants of the Middle Ages" (Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol.22, p. 136). In modern Soviet historiography, beyond the western part of this area (as applied to the XVIII century). this is Poland, the Austrian Monarchy and the Balkans) established the name "Central and South-Eastern Europe". In this sense, it is also used in this article.
2 Culture and society in the era of the formation of nations (Central and South-Eastern Europe at the end of the XVIII-70s of the XIX century). M. 1974; Theater in the national culture of the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe of the XVIII-XIX centuries. M. 1976; Formation of national cultures in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Moscow, 1977; Natsionalnoe vozrozhdenie i formirovanie slavyanskikh literaturnykh yazykov [National Revival and formation of Slavic literary languages], Moscow, 1978. Vol. 6. The culture of the peoples of the Balkans in the new time. M. 1980; Liberation movement of the peoples of the Austrian Empire. Origin and development. Late 18th century -1849 Moscow, 1980; Formation of nations in Central and South-Eastern Europe. Istoricheskiy i istoriko-kul'turnyi aspekty [Historical and Historical-cultural Aspects], Moscow, 1981; Literature of the era of nation formation in Central and South-Eastern Europe. Prosveshchenie Natsionalnoe vozrozhdenie [Enlightenment and National Revival], Moscow, 19.82; Poland on the Path of development and Approval of capitalism. The end of the XVIII-60s of the XIX century. Moscow, 1984.
3 See: History, Culture, ethnography and folklore of Slavic peoples. VII International Congress of Slavists. Warsaw, August 1973. Reports of the Soviet delegation, Moscow, 1973; Balkan Studies. Problemy istorii i kul'tury [Problems of History and Culture], Moscow, 1976. Vol. 9. Issues of social, political and cultural history of South - Eastern Europe. M. 1984.
4 Mylnikov A. S. The Epoch of Enlightenment in the Czech Lands. Ideology, national identity, culture, Moscow, 1977; Lipatov A.V. The emergence of the Polish enlightenment novel. Problemy natsionalnogo i obshcheevropeiskogo [Problems of National and Common European art], Moscow, 1974; Lvova E. P. Izobrazhitel'noe iskusstvo Bulgariya epokhi natsional'nogo Vozrozhdeniya, Moscow, 1975; Svirida I. I. Polskaya khudozhestvennaya zhizn kontsa XVIII-pervoi treti XIX veka, Moscow, 1978; Titova L. N. Cheshskiy teatr epokhi natsional'nogo vozrozhdeniya. The end of the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. Moscow, 1980.
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Other socialist countries have also recently published a number of works on the development of their national cultures in the 18th and early 19th centuries. 5 These issues are prominently discussed in the proceedings of international comprehensive scientific conferences held in Moscow (1974), Varna (1975), and Berlin (1976) under the auspices of UNESCO. according to the program of study of Slavic cultures 6 .
Marxist-Leninist historiography shows the genetic connection of the Enlightenment in Central and South-Eastern Europe with the Enlightenment in the western part of the continent, identifies its national characteristics in a number of aspects, attempts are made to compare and study the Enlightenment in the context of a comprehensive study of the process of formation of national cultures. The accumulated material allows us to raise the question of the most important general features of Enlightenment among the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe, i.e., the typological image of Enlightenment in this region.
The concrete historical experience of the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe in the 18th century suggests that the current understanding of the Enlightenment as an ideological movement alone is narrow .7 Carriers of new philosophical, theoretical-political, aesthetic ideas or their associates were also engaged in the development of a national literary language, they created artistic values, expressing new ideas and their understanding of the world in an artistic form. On their initiative and with their participation, the national periodical press was born, and book publishing was established. Finally, progressive figures were grouped into circles, societies, and associations for publishing literature, developing science, and spreading knowledge. Such social practice, which, naturally, was not the same among different peoples and was conducted at different levels, went beyond the ideological sphere. Therefore, it seems appropriate to consider the Enlightenment as a stage in the process of forming a new historical type of culture, 8 due to the development of capitalism in the depths of the feudal system and the formation of the nation. It is necessary to clearly distinguish Enlightenment and "enlightenment", "enlightenment movement" as specific phenomena inherent in different stages of cultural development and having different historical content depending on this.
The formation of the culture of capitalist society proceeded on two levels: conscious activity in the first place, which formed a special social stratum of the national intelligentsia, and spontaneous creativity of the masses. During the Enlightenment period, these
5 Проблема на Българското възраждане. Sophia. 1981; Конев И. Българското възраждане и Просвещението (История, историческо съзнание, взаимодействия). Sophia. 1983; Pavich M. Historia srpske knizhevnosti klasizma i predromantizma [History of classicism and pre-Romanticism]. Classicists. Beograd. 1979; Obdobje razsvetljenstva v slovenskem jeziku, knjizevnosti in kulturi. Ljubljana. 1979; Nоvоtný J. M. V. Kramerius. Praha. 1973; Slownik literatury polskiego Oswiecenia. Wroclaw etc. 1977.
6 Slavic cultures in the epoch of formation and development of Slavic civilizations of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Proceedings of the International Conference of UNESCO, Moscow, 1978; Slavic Cultures and the Balkans. Tt. 1-2. Sofia. 1978; Slawische Kulturen in der Geschichte der europäischen Kulturen vom 18. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert. Brl. 1982.
7 Bogdanova I. A. Education as the initial stage of the formation of national cultures. In: Formation of national cultures in the countries of Central and South - Eastern Europe, Moscow, 1977; Zlydnev V. I. Typological proximity of cultures of Western and South Slavic peoples in the era of nation formation. - Soviet Slavic Studies, 1983, N 4.
8 Refers to spiritual culture "as a social system as a whole, in the unity of all its constituent parts "(Kim M. P. On culture as a subject of historical study. Report at the All-Union Scientific Conference. Moscow, December 1974, Moscow, 1974, p. 3), including the creative sphere, forms of cultural life and the development of spiritual values by society.. .
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the flows did not coincide or overlap, but entered into a complex interaction. This article will focus on the cultural foundation created by the educated part of society. It was crucial for the stage of the historical and cultural process as a whole. The changes that took place in folk culture at the time under review are not sufficiently studied from the historical and cultural point of view, so any generalizations in this area are premature.
The historical development of the Slavic and Balkan peoples, obeying general laws, at the same time had significant features. In 1916, T. V. I. Lenin, describing "three types of countries in relation to the self-determination of nations", singled out the east of Europe in the second group: Austria, the Balkans and Russia. "Here," he wrote, " it was precisely the twentieth century that particularly developed the bourgeois-democratic national movements and sharpened the national struggle." 9 Lenin repeatedly pointed out that at the beginning of the twentieth century. it was a part of the European continent with an incomplete bourgeois-democratic transformation and an unresolved national question .10 It was a special type of historical process.
The typology of the progressive cultural movement of the peoples of Central and South - Eastern Europe, including at the stage of Enlightenment, being relatively independent, was ultimately determined by the general and special features of historical development.
The peoples of the region under consideration, who, apart from the Poles, lost their statehood in the Middle Ages, were subjected to Ottoman enslavement or experienced an immediate danger of Ottoman invasion for centuries, and were removed from the routes of world trade, lingered longer in the stage of late feudalism than the population of the western part of the continent. They entered the path of capitalism at a higher level of its pan-European development than was the case with Western society.
According to the socio-class composition, the ethnic communities under consideration were divided into two types: Hungarians, Poles, Croats and Vlachs had national nobility; Serbs, Bulgarians, Slovenes, Czechs, Slovaks practically did not have it, but this did not mean that there were no feudal lords at all. The socio-class structure here had a significant impact on the historical and cultural process.
In Central and Southeastern Europe, the national consolidation of peoples, with the exception of Poles, began within large, politically integrated, but ethnically diverse states. Therefore, while in the West the consolidation of nations gave rise to centripetal efforts to overcome feudal fragmentation and ensure the economic and political cohesion of each of the communities, in the peoples of the region under consideration, the national process was combined with a tendency to weaken, and then to destroy, the feudal multinational states that hindered their development. In contrast to the West, in Central and Southeastern Europe, national oppression was a characteristic feature of the social situation.
The historical and cultural process in the region under consideration also had its own characteristics. The peoples who inhabited it, with some exceptions, either did not go through certain stages of cultural development characteristic of early capitalist forms in the West, or these stages were not clearly expressed in them. In this respect, Central Europe was somewhat different from the Southeastern part of the continent. The humanist movement and Renaissance marked the cultural life of Poland in the late 15th and early 17th centuries.-
9 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 27, p. 260.
10 See ibid., vol. 23, p. 314; vol. 30, p. 88 , 89, 111, 355 - 356.
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This idea was also reflected in the culture of some other peoples. In the South-East, only in Dalmatia and Dubrovnik did Renaissance cultural forms take place. However, some researchers note pre-Renaissance features in the culture of the Eastern European peoples of the XIV-XV centuries 11 .
The reformation covered all segments of the population and was marked by anti-feudal aspirations and ideas of independence only in the Czech Republic. Despite the Catholic reaction and the brutal oppression of the Czechs after the defeat of the anti - Habsburg uprising of 1618-1620, the Hussite traditions remained in the historical memory of the people even in the "dark" period (after the battle of White Mountain). The reformation movements affected Poland, Hungary, the Slovenian lands, and Croatia, but they did not have a broad popular basis here, were weak, moderate, and ended in the victory of the counter-Reformation. Nevertheless, they left their mark on the culture.
If there are common features in the cultural development of the peoples of the region under consideration, the formation of a new culture for each of them, due to the peculiarity of the specific historical situation, had its own characteristics. Cultural processes took place at different levels of socio-economic development, different class composition of society, unequal position of individual peoples in the social and political system of states. The conditions of the very existence of the peoples were not identical. The territory of settlement of some of them (Croats, Serbs, Vlachs, Poles) was divided between different states. The language situation in certain lands had its own peculiarities. The previous historical and cultural process and its traditions were not the same. The established spheres of cultural interaction differed. All these circumstances left their mark on the Enlightenment in Central and South-Eastern Europe, defining the features characteristic of the region as a whole, and the originality of individual peoples.
Among the problems of the history of the Enlightenment in Central and South-Eastern Europe, on which there are still disagreements among scientists, is primarily the question of its chronological framework. V. I. Lenin's reference to the stages of development of the Russian Workers ' Party is of crucial methodological importance for determining the periodization of the historical and cultural process12 .
In Central and Southeastern Europe, the development of culture in modern times was closely linked to the national liberation movement. The periodization of the cultural process, which undoubtedly has its own milestones, is ultimately determined by the main stages of the liberation struggle of each nation.
But the development of capitalism, the birth of nations and, consequently, the formation of a new historical type of culture began in the region under consideration before the national liberation struggle was launched in individual lands with a specific program of action, organization, and leadership on a national scale. To the rise of the national liberation struggle (regardless of the stage of the revolution).-
11 See: Likhachev D. S. Pre-birth in Russia at the end of the XIV-first half of the XV century. In: Literature of the Renaissance and problems of World Literature, Moscow, 1967. From Constantin the Philosopher to Paisii Hilendarski. Sophia. 1979, p. 158sl.
12 "The history of the workers' press in Russia is inextricably linked with the history of the democratic and socialist movement. Therefore, only by knowing the main stages of the liberation movement can one really gain an understanding of why the preparation and emergence of the workers 'press went this way, and not in any other way" (Lenin V. I. PSS .Vol. 25, p.93).
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As a rule, it was preceded by a period of consolidation of progressive national forces, local social revival, and ideological preparation. At this time, a certain stage in the development of the culture of the rising bourgeois society falls - the Enlightenment.
Chronologically, the Enlightenment in Central and Southeastern Europe spans the second half of the 18th century, with some variations in the initial and final boundaries of each nation. Although some features of the new culture were born and formed somewhat earlier, as a system it began to operate in the second half of the XVIII century. The initial facet of the enlightenment stage of culture can be considered the emergence of a fairly stable set of new ideas that could receive both artistic expression and significant and irreversible changes at the creative level.
Without in any way absolutizing the meaning of specific historical dates, which leads to a grossly simplified view of history when defining a historical period, the appearance of the classic drama of the thinker and poet D. Besshenei "The Tragedy of Agis" (1772) can be considered as a conditional initial facet of the mature Enlightenment among the Hungarians, and the deployment of the Czechs from 1760 - 1770-ies of the cultural activity of G. Dobner, M. A. Voigt, F. M. Pelzl, among the Serbs-the publication of printed works by the writer and teacher D. Obradovich (1783) 13.
The French bourgeois revolution of the late eighteenth century ushered in a new historical epoch - the epoch, according to Lenin, of "the rise of the bourgeoisie, its complete victory," and "bourgeois-democratic movements in general, bourgeois-national movements in particular." 14
In Central and South-Eastern Europe, a new historical epoch was marked by the uprising of 1794 under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko, which became a fundamental milestone in the development of the Polish liberation movement on a national scale, the anti-Ottoman uprising of 1804-1813 in Serbia - the first bourgeois and national liberation revolution in the Balkans-and followed it in 1815. The second Serbian uprising, the formation of the Hungarian and Greek national liberation movements in the 1790s.
The Napoleonic Wars had serious consequences for many aspects of the life of the peoples of Central and South - Eastern Europe. The "Napoleonic era" of 1799-1814, marked by aggressive campaigns, also marked an important stage in the development of bourgeois relations on the continent .16 During the war years, as a result of the increased needs of large armies for food and textile products, as well as due to the continental blockade, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia, and Greece developed an exceptionally favorable economic situation. The entry into the 19th century was marked by the beginning of an industrial revolution in the Czech lands. In other regions, the process of capital accumulation, strengthening of the merchant class, and bourgeoisization of a part of the nobility intensified. The wars of the beginning of the century were associated with socio-economic factors.-
13 Hereafter, the material of the book "Liberation Movements of the peoples of the Austrian Empire" is used.
14 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 26, p. 143.
15 Karasev V. G. Bourgeois-national revolutions of the Balkan peoples. The Eastern crisis of the mid-70s of the XIX century and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In: 100 Years of Liberation of the Balkan Peoples from the Ottoman Yoke, Moscow, 1979, p. 169; Narochnitsky A. L. The nature and significance of the First Serbian Uprising of 1804-1813-New and Modern History, 1981, N 4.
16 Revunenkov V. G. On the chronological framework of the Great French Revolution. - Bulletin of the Leningrad University, history, language, literature. 1979, No. 14, issue 3, pp. 31-32.
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social innovations and political events that have left a deep impression on the public consciousness 17 .
The period of the Napoleonic Wars, with all the complexity and inconsistency of European life, was a time of profound upheaval for the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe and at the same time of strengthening of nations. With the end of the wars, a reactionary police-bureaucratic regime was established in the Austrian Empire. However, he was not able to eliminate all the social consequences of the "Napoleonic era", reverse the process of national awakening of oppressed peoples and reduce the increased public consciousness to its former level. But for some time it delayed the further development of the liberation movements.
Thus, the French bourgeois Revolution with its ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity, the Napoleonic wars, and the rise of the national liberation struggle of a number of peoples of the region at the turn of the century created a new social and spiritual situation in Central and South-Eastern Europe. Nations have experienced events that have shaken their lives and minds. The progressive public could no longer be content with the social ideals of the Enlightenment, to think in terms of the XVIII century. Under the influence of the French Revolution, the idea of a bourgeois republic was born among Hungarians and Greeks at the end of the century. In Poland, after the events of 1791 - 1793, the consciousness of the inevitability of a social revolution is developing, albeit in a vague form .18 But the broader psychological and intellectual transformation of societies was not immediately apparent. It took time, a transition period, for the most advanced strata of society, represented by progressive thinkers, to realize themselves at a new, higher level of development. The younger generation entered the arena of public life with a different understanding of social needs, which have changed significantly compared to the XVIII century.
In the new historical era, the emerging national cultures faced different challenges. The development of liberation movements in Central and South-Eastern Europe has opened up broad prospects for cultural development. Certain features peculiar to the Enlightenment stage were manifested in culture, especially in artistic forms, even later, since the transition from one stage to another in the process of developing a culture of one historical type meant not only overcoming outdated norms, but also using the accumulated experience. The last years of the 18th and early 19th centuries in the cultural development of most peoples of Central and South - Eastern Europe meant the end of the Enlightenment and at the same time the transition to a more mature stage in the process of forming national cultures.
Depending on the specific historical situation, not all the peoples of the region under consideration have passed the stage of Enlightenment in its mature expression, which implied the manifestation of a new culture as a system, although not yet sufficiently developed. Among the Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, and Greeks, the last decades of the XVIII century were marked by fundamental shifts in the creative and intellectual sphere, national forms of dissemination of achievements of social thought and artistic practice appeared, and some changes were outlined.-
17 Istoriya Jugoslaviya [History of Yugoslavia], vol. 1. Moscow, 1963, pp. 382, 384; Osvobozhitel'nye dvizheniya narodov Austrianskoi imperii, pp. 154-155; Narochnitskiy A. L. Grecheskoe natsionalno - osvobozhitelnoe dvizhenie i Rossiya (1801-1831 gg.) [Greek National Liberation Movement and Russia (1801-1831 gg.)]. Issue 7. Istoricheskie i istoriko-kul'turnye protsessy na Balkany [Historical and historical-cultural processes in the Balkans], Moscow, 1982, p. 117.
18 Istoriya Hungarii [History of Hungary], T. P. M. 1972, pp. 30-31, 34-35; Arsh G. L. Eteristskoe dvizhenie v Rossii [The Eterist movement in Russia]. Liberation struggle of the Greek people at the beginning of the XIX century and Russian-Greek relations, Moscow, 1970, p. 100; Kutyavin V. V., Stetskevich S. M., Yakubsky V. A. On the problems of the national revolution in Poland at the end of the XVIII - first third of the XIX century. In: Voprosy istorii slavyan [Questions of the History of Slavs]. Voronezh. 1980, p. 66.
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It is true that only the educated strata of the population are still aware of this phenomenon in the ordinary consciousness.
In other peoples, due to the peculiarities of historical and cultural development, the stage of Enlightenment did not have a clear expression, only certain features characteristic of it were noted. In this respect, the situation among Croats is indicative. At the time under review, there were three local cultures in the Croatian lands - Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia - that had rich traditions. They were marked by new ideological and artistic phenomena (the works of A. Kacic-Miosic, M. Relkovic). However, the formation of a common Croatian cultural community was only planned. The prerequisites that prepared the breakthrough in national cultural development that Croats experienced in the 30s of the XIX century were maturing.
The culture of the rising capitalist society was characterized by a new class content, the emerging national community, the dialectical unity of contradictory tendencies in interaction with foreign cultures, the scale of penetration of spiritual values into society and the degree of their assimilation.
The class content of the new culture at the Enlightenment stage was not uniform. With the historically growing role of the bourgeois component in it, it also included the popular social layer of culture, which expressed the aspirations, aspirations and moral ideal of the working masses. In addition, there was a process of disintegration of the dominant feudal noble culture (where there was a nobility), and in the specific conditions of the region, some of its parts, in some aspects, performed tasks that were historically assigned to the national culture.
Class content in different types of culture (for example, journalism or music) and at different levels of it was not equally clearly manifested. There were also possible contradictions between certain aspects of the artist's worldview and the objective meaning of the work he created. Nevertheless, the most important indicator of the new class content of culture, created by the conscious activity of representatives of progressive social aspirations, at the Enlightenment stage was the beginning of the formation of a bourgeois worldview.
The process of shaping bourgeois thought took place in different societies of Central and South-Eastern Europe with varying degrees of intensity and reached varying depths. This did not mean, however, that the bearers of bourgeois consciousness everywhere represented only the bourgeoisie. The social origins of the ideological position of Enlightenment thinkers depended on the conditions of socio-economic development, the class structure of Society, the nature and severity of social contradictions within it. Thus, in Hungary, Enlightenment figures (D. Besshenei, F. Kazinzi) were ideologists of a part of the middle nobility, who began to understand the need for change; in Poland, S. Stashits, G. Kollontai, F. Jezerski reflected the interests of a part of the gentry and bourgeois strata; the social roots of the ideological position of D. Obradovich, the most prominent representative of the Serbian Enlightenment, were connected with the interests of the bourgeoisie and partly the peasantry.
But subjectively progressive thinkers of that time, as V. I. Lenin noted, "talked not only about the people in general, but even about the nation in general." 19 This was a common feature of the Enlightenment. It stemmed from the insufficient development of contradictions within the young capitalist society, whose development needs these figures expressed, and from the process of national consolidation. But anyway the form
19 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 2, p. 541.
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universality reflected the class limitations of the Enlightenment's views.
The bourgeois nature of the beliefs of the Enlightenment representatives in the region under consideration was manifested primarily in their assimilation and use of the philosophical propositions and socio - political ideas of the Western European Enlightenment in accordance with the needs of national development. This was especially true of rationalism. "Every one of the ruling classes," wrote Fr. Engels, - uses his own religion: ...liberal and radical bourgeoisie-rationalism " 20 . Critical philosophy was followed by all prominent figures of the Enlightenment in the region under consideration. It was intended to justify the approach of the new social forces to the real struggle against feudal orders and the church that sanctifies them as institutions contrary to" common sense", as well as against national oppression.
From the standpoint of rationalism, Enlightenment thinkers advocated the liberation of society from church regulation of life and religious tolerance. The theoretical basis of the sociological views of Enlightenment figures, as a rule, was the" natural law " doctrine. Originating in ancient times, it changed its content depending on the time and social views of its bearers. In the works of D. Obradovich, for example, the theory of "natural law" was directed against feudal privileges, religious persecution and social degradation.
In the political-theoretical field, the vast majority of Enlightenment thinkers in the Austrian Monarchy and Poland were supporters of enlightened absolutism. However, this position was sometimes combined with the idea of limiting monarchism to "hard" laws (Obradovich, Voigt) or the constitution. Figures of the Polish Enlightenment became the ideological inspirers of the constitution of May 3, 1791. The moderate concept of enlightened absolutism reflected the immaturity of socio-economic and socio-political conditions.
In the Austrian Monarchy, representatives of the Enlightenment of various nations supported and approved the progressive measures of Joseph II, especially the struggle against the omnipotence of the church, the proclamation of religious tolerance, and the abolition of personal dependence of the peasants. However, the internal inconsistency of the policy of the "enlightened" monarch remained hidden from them: the presence of bourgeois tendencies in it obscured its focus on preserving feudalism and establishing Habsburg rule over the subject peoples in the new conditions.
During the Enlightenment, progressive thinkers first drew attention to social reality. As a rule, they pinned their hopes on spreading knowledge and educating society, seeing this as a way to change the world. However, in the 80s - 90s of the XVIII century, the idea of eliminating feudal relations was clearly expressed in the Czech (J. Hanke), Hungarian (I. Hainotsi) and Greek social circles. The revolutionary anti-feudal program of the Greek Rigas Velestinlis became the political basis of the nascent eterist movement. Figures of the Polish Enlightenment specifically linked the restoration of the state with the implementation of a number of socio-economic and political reforms, which, however, did not affect the foundations of the feudal system that existed in Poland before its third partition.
A distinctive feature of Enlightenment social thought, characteristic of many oppressed peoples of Central and Southeastern Europe, was the formulation of the national question. The works and activities of the foremost representatives of culture were imbued with a national spirit.
20 K. Marx and F. Engels Soch. Vol. 21, p. 315.
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self-awareness. But the understanding of the development of "one's own" nation and its relations with other nations in different conditions was manifested differently: from public speeches for the right of the national literary language to independent existence and development (Slovak A. Bernolak), in defense of the native language (Czechs J. Ganke, K. Tamm), creating concepts of the past of their people in order to assert it in the present (the Vlas" Transylvanian " trinity-S. Miku-Kline, P. Major, G. Shinkai) - before the idea of national freedom and independence was put forward (D. Besshenei, D. Obradovich, R. Velestinlis). The formulation of national tasks, national liberation aspirations, although often expressed in an undeveloped form, made the new culture an important factor in national awakening.
The central problem of the progressive social thought of the peoples of the region under consideration was the development of national culture.
The objective need for the formation of a modern man was reflected in the minds of leading cultural figures through rationalistic philosophy with its cult of the perfect human mind, which led to an exorbitant overestimation of the role of knowledge, education, literature, and printing, which were seen as the main levers for transforming the world. The exaggerated idea of the place of culture in the life of peoples was reinforced under the influence of national oppression, when culture acquired special significance as a sphere of manifestation of the life activity of the emerging nations.
The peculiarity of the problem of culture posed by progressive thinkers in the region under consideration was that it was consciously linked to the fate of the nation. The development of science, literature, and the press - what is now called culture-was conceived as a prerequisite, and perhaps the main one at that, for raising the people to the level of the advanced ones and ensuring their worthy place in the circle of European nations (D. Beshshenei, D. Obradovich).
In the new historical conditions, representatives of the Enlightenment more or less clearly developed concepts of national cultures that were associated with certain tasks of the era, although they did not use the concept of "culture". These concepts were formed gradually, going from single guesses about the importance of certain types of culture to attempts to understand cultural development as a whole in the spirit of modern times and a progressive social environment. They revealed the ways of creating a national culture, its tasks, and its role in the life of society. Cultural programs became an important part of the ideological struggle of that time. These concepts reflected the profound changes in public consciousness during the transition from feudalism to capitalism. In turn, the conceptual comprehension of the most far-sighted contemporaries of the ways of formation and tasks of national culture meant strengthening the conscious influence of society on its development.
Cultural programs developed by Hungarian, Polish, Czech, Serbian and other Enlightenment figures assumed the development of secular culture based on the national literary language in close connection with real life processes. These programs were intended to become an ideological weapon of progressive social forces in the struggle for the reconstruction of life on a "reasonable" basis.
Under the rule of feudalism, at the dawn of bourgeois society, the question of national culture had an important social significance and soundness. V. I. Lenin wrote in the autumn of 1913: "125 years ago, when the nation was not yet divided into bourgeoisie and proletariat, the slogan of national culture could have been a single and integral appeal
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to the struggle against feudalism and clericalism " 21 . Under the conditions of national oppression to which the peoples of the region in question were subjected, the anti-feudal and anti-clerical, i.e., general democratic, content of the concepts of national culture was reinforced by their national liberation orientation.
Unlike Western Europe, primarily France, where progressive social thought at the stage of Enlightenment was characterized by a deep differentiation corresponding to the class composition of society (Voltaire, Rousseau, Mellier, Morelli, Mably), in the countries and lands of Central and South-Eastern Europe, it did not have such different social content directions, although it did not have the same social content. it was heterogeneous. There are still no prerequisites for an extensive ideological differentiation of progressive social forces.
In Central Europe, the social thought of the Enlightenment was moderate, sometimes unformulated in socio-political matters. These features were primarily explained by the conditions of development and the nature of the social strata with whose interests the roots of Enlightenment ideas were connected. In the Austrian Monarchy, the reforms of enlightened absolutism facilitated bourgeois development to some extent. The last decades of the XVIII century were marked by economic revival in the country. This fed compromise sentiments among immature and undeveloped bourgeois forces. And in Hungary, with all the heat of the public atmosphere in the 80s of the XVIII century. as a result of the political maneuvers of Leopold II, the tendency to come to an agreement with the crown prevailed, which determined the position of the Hungarian nobility over the next decades. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the efforts of enlighteners were aimed at strengthening the existing state. The ideological situation here was characterized by the maturing of the national revolutionary character of the gentry type. The second factor affecting the state of social thought in Central Europe was the lack of development of the anti-feudal peasant movement.
The situation in the Balkans is different. Here, the sharpness of social contradictions was much higher due to the peculiarities of Ottoman feudalism, the coincidence of class, national and religious antagonisms. The eighteenth century was filled with various forms of unrest and uprisings. Popular energy was also released during the Austro-Turkish and especially Russo-Turkish wars. The situation in the Balkans, although to a small extent, had an impact on D. Obradovich. But in full measure, it became the real basis on which, along with the moderate current in the Greek Enlightenment (A. Korais), the revolutionary bourgeois-democratic program of R. Velestinlis (1796-1797) was formed .22
An important indicator of the fundamental ideological shift in the societies of Central and South-Eastern Europe was the emergence of science and its further separation from theological thinking among those peoples where this process began during the period of the humanist and reformation movements. Enlightenment figures attached exceptional importance to the development of science in the life of society, considering it the basis for the elevation and prosperity of every nation (D. Beshshenei, D. Obradovich, etc.).
The state of scientific thought, as well as the ratio of developing scientific knowledge, was not the same among different peoples. But common to all of them was the appearance of historical works of a patriotic nature as a result of the revival of public interest in history in connection with the formation of nations. Not all authors of historical works have risen to the level of
21 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 24, p. 9.
22 See Arsh G. L. Uk. soch., p. 94 sl. 125-126.
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the level of scientific thinking in accordance with their time. The significance of historical works was not so much in the new philosophy of history, although this was very important, as in their focus on solving actual social problems. With the help of historical material, the authors tried to answer the questions of the time, attract public attention to them, awaken patriotic feelings and confidence in the future in their compatriots. This side is the historical works of the Bulgarian Paisius Hilendarsky ("History of Slavobolgar" - 1762), Slovakov Yu. Papanek ("The History of the Slovak people" - 1780), J. Sklenar ("The most ancient situation of Great Moravia" - 1784) and Yu. Fandli ("A brief history of the Slovak people" - 1793), Slovenian A. Linhart ("Experience in writing the history of Kraina and other southern Slavs of Austria" - 1789-1791), Serbian I. Raich ("History of different Slavic peoples, especially Bulgarians, Croats and Serbs", vols. 1-4, 1794-1795) and others performed an important function that met the needs of the formation of national identity.
Special mention should be made of the appeal of individual authors to the state national tradition and its use for solving urgent social problems. In this respect, Paisius Hilendarsky's "History of Slavobolgar" is indicative. There is no consensus among historians about the social nature of the worldview of Paisius, the greatest personality of the Bulgarian culture of the XVIII century. This article is not intended to address this issue specifically. But the principle of his appeal to the interrupted Bulgarian state historical tradition deserves attention. In the "History", the reminder of the former greatness of the Bulgarian state served to awaken the patriotic consciousness of Bulgarians, was a historical argument in favor of eliminating the rule of the Greek Phanariot clergy, and sounded an alarm call to action. In Paisius ' work, the historical tradition was used against the oppression of the Bulgarians and aimed at the spiritual liberation of the people, which in those conditions could not but become a prelude to the national liberation struggle.
A significant fact was the appearance of works on economic topics in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Croatia. It was the Croatian economist I. Shipus in his pamphlet " The basis of grain trade according to nature and events "(1796), based on the interests of trade, who first raised the question of the need for a single literary language for the population of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. At the same time, natural science knowledge was developed and popularized.
Changes in the worldview were associated with the development of new ways and techniques of artistic cognition and reflection of reality. In the artistic cultures of most of the peoples of the region, with the decline of the Baroque style, new artistic methods developed and strengthened-classicism, sentimentalism (pre-romanticism) and educational realism.
At the stage of Enlightenment, the formation of a national community of culture of each nation became noticeable, despite its class heterogeneity. This process took place under the increasing influence of advanced social forces. The emerging national community of culture manifested itself primarily in the national identity, which, as already noted, permeated the activities of representatives of the Enlightenment. In parallel with the development of national identity in new conditions and at a new level, the Slavic public has revived the consciousness of the ethnic community of Slavs. The correlation of kinship traits in the cultures of the Slavs and national distinctive features for many decades occupied the public thought of the Slavic peoples.
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A characteristic feature of the Enlightenment among the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe was the increased attention of the progressive public to the problem of the national literary language. Due to the needs of developing nations, it has received special relevance here due to the unfavorable conditions of their formation. The national situation, language situation and book traditions of the individual peoples of the region were not the same, so the question of the national literary language of each of them had its own characteristics. In general, the efforts of Enlightenment workers were aimed at creating (Slovaks), restoring (Czechs), renewing (Greeks) or enriching (Hungarians, Poles) a national literary language based on native speech, capable of providing a common spiritual life, expanding its social functions and ensuring freedom of development .23
Representatives of the Enlightenment, as a rule, explained the need for literary and linguistic reforms by the need for spiritual improvement of society, which was possible only in their native language. At the same time, they were the first leaders who consciously linked the destinies of their native language and nation (D. Beshshenei, D. Obradovich, F. M. Pelzl). "All nations have become educated," Beschenszeny wrote in his pamphlet Hungarians in 1778," only by virtue of their native language, and none by virtue of a foreign one. " 24
Raising the question of the national literary language itself was important for the development of nations and national identity. However, Enlightenment figures not only theoretically justified the need and importance of attention to the native language, but also in practice solved the problem of creating, consolidating or enriching the national literary language, presenting samples of both its journalistic and scientific style, and artistic expressiveness, publishing dictionaries and codifying vocabulary and grammar. The literary and linguistic reforms that began were carried out in several directions. Under the conditions of national oppression and even more violent Germanization, to which the peoples of the Habsburg Monarchy were subjected, the movement for the native language acquired a liberating character.
The relevance of the literary and linguistic problem was also related to the needs of the development of culture itself, its verbal forms. Since approximately the second half of the 18th century, the peoples of the region, although with varying degrees of intensity and expressiveness, have seen a rise in national literature, especially noticeable against the background of a long literary stagnation. The process of designing literature of a new ideological and artistic type has begun. Among peoples with a rich literary heritage (Poles, Hungarians, and partly Croats), this transition took place in conditions when a number of artistic tasks were solved at previous stages of cultural development (generic and genre diversity of literature was achieved, thanks to writers ' perception of Baroque aesthetics, it developed in line with the pan-European artistic process, etc.). Among peoples with extremely weakened or even interrupted literary and written traditions in their native language (or close to it) The development of national literature in the proper sense of the word meant simultaneously the "discovery" of literary genera and genres that were already well known in the West, the birth of genuine artistry, and the introduction to the euro-
23 See National Revival and formation of Slavic literary languages; Logachev K. I. Greek enlightenment of the XVIII-early XIX centuries and the problem of the written language. In: Formation of national cultures in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe.
24 Selected works of Hungarian thinkers. The end of the XVIII - middle of the XIX century. Moscow, 1965, p. 41.
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Russian style trends of the new time. All this required a language update. And such aspects of the literary process as the development of the creative method of educational realism, the renewal of the comedy genre, the beginning of a conscious perception of folklore by writers, etc., also made it necessary to consolidate the folk language in literature .25
The formation of a national community of class-heterogeneous culture was also expressed in the formation of national forms of cultural life. In the region under consideration, the organization of societies and institutions designed to ensure the dissemination of cultural achievements on a national scale was met with opposition from feudal oppressive states of other nationalities. Anarchy, arbitrariness, and despotism in the lands under the rule of the Porte generally excluded any public activity. In this respect, conditions were more favorable in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which still retained some of its independence. The activities of cultural organizations were also hindered by the division of the territory of individual peoples by administrative - political and State borders.
In the second half of the 18th century, some peoples of Central and Southeastern Europe developed a national periodical press. Its creation required capital, a printing base, a readership prepared for the systematic reading of national, and political, literature, and the permission of the authorities. All this created considerable difficulties, so the first periodicals were usually short-lived.
Polish journalism in the modern sense of the term dates back to the 60s of the 18th century. In 1768, Z. Orfelin, the forerunner of the Serbian Enlightenment, published in Venice "Slaveno-Serbian shop". This was the first attempt at a magazine publication in the Slavic South. However, only one issue was released. In 1791 - 1792, 1792-1794 Serbian newspapers were published in Vienna, then there was a break until 1813. In the 1780s, Hungarian and Czech periodicals were founded. From 1797 to 1800, the circle of Baron Zois published the first Slovenian newspaper in Ljubljana. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Greek newspapers and magazines were published in London, Vienna, and Paris. The first national periodicals, despite the short duration of their publication, played a certain role in mobilizing national cultural forces and spreading the achievements of socio-political and artistic thought on a national scale.
In the second half of the 18th century, there was a shift in the development of book publishing and printing, but it also proceeded in difficult conditions. Serbs in the Austrian monarchy unsuccessfully tried to get permission from the Vienna authorities to establish a national printing house. They were forced to settle for printing houses in Venice, Leipzig, and Vienna, the latter of which had a monopoly on printing Serbian books under the Habsburg Monarchy. The Vienna printing house was briefly in Serbian hands (1792-1796).
In the history of Czech culture, a special place was occupied by the "Czech Expedition" organized in Prague in 1790 by M. V. Kramerius, the first national publishing house and bookselling firm. It has become a rallying point for national progressives.
The formation of a national community of culture in the sphere of dissemination of creative achievements was also manifested in the creation of various organizations and societies with a national scale of activity. Back in the late 40-ies of the XVIII century. in Warsaw, a library was opened-
25 For the literature of Enlightenment among the peoples of the region under consideration, see: Literature of the era of Nation formation in Central and South-Eastern Europe.
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naya library. In the 1770s, public associations were formed in the Czech lands on the initiative of Enlightenment figures, whose goal was to develop the native language, study Czech history and culture. On their basis, the Czech Society of Sciences was organized (around 1774). In Prague and other cities, various associations, temporary circles, clubs, and reading rooms were created. Small public libraries and reading rooms have appeared in Hungary. In other lands, more modest associations of like-minded people took place to solve scientific issues, develop the national literary language, and publish and distribute new literature. Such were the Zois Circle, a Slovak scientific association headed by the prominent cultural figure A. Bernolak, established in 1792 in Trnava and having branches in other cities. Obradovic and several Serbian merchants in Vojvodina formed a partnership to distribute the works of Obradovic and his closest student and associate P. Solaric. It was a modest prototype of the future Matica of Serbia. The role of cultural societies, associations, and circles is difficult to overestimate, since they were the first form of social organizations in the oppressed lands and contained the beginnings of national cultural and educational movements that developed in full force later, in new conditions and at a new stage of social development of the oppressed peoples.
At the time under review, Poles, Hungarians and Czechs were developing cultural centers of national significance (Warsaw, Buda and Pest, Prague). The Yugoslavs did not yet have national cultural centers, and the Slovaks and Bulgarians did not have "their own" (in terms of ethnic composition of the population) cities where the national cultural life would be concentrated at all. For many peoples of the region, due to the unfavorable conditions of historical development and unequal status, cities located outside the ethnic territories, where printing houses were located, books and newspapers were published, and prominent representatives of the Enlightenment lived and worked in the name of their national culture, had cultural significance. These were Vienna, Moscow, Paris, etc. The state of cultural centers reflected the level of the national process among individual peoples. But it was also connected with the social situation in each land, with the degree of foreign pressure.
The new culture was created and developed in the struggle against feudal ideology, local disunity of the population, church obscurantism, local narrow-mindedness, patriarchy and traditionalism of the mass consciousness, by overcoming national belittlement. Greek feudal layer (kodzabasy) he was an active opponent of the development of education and the dissemination of knowledge among the Greeks. The highest Serbian clergy opposed the unity of the language of Serbian literature on a vernacular basis.
However, the interaction of various social components in the culture of individual peoples who were under the conditions of foreign oppression or under the threat of loss of state independence was complex. Under the influence of the demands of the time, the process of partial restructuring of feudal culture was underway, which nevertheless, even in the new conditions, was aimed at reproducing, albeit somewhat transformed, traditional society. Individual representatives of the feudal strata to a certain extent adapted to the changes in life, adopted new creative techniques, and joined in patriotic actions. Signs of this were the creation of literary works in a new style, collecting works of art, etc. Apparently, in this regard, we should consider the activities of the "royal party" in the field of culture, which unfolded in the context of the crisis of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ugro-
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its independent existence; it corresponded to the atmosphere of reforms aimed at some improvement of the state. The conservative representatives of the "noble resistance" of the 1780s in Hungary, through their activities, to a certain extent contributed to the polishing of the national literary language, improving its artistic expressiveness .26 The same should be said about the linguistic position of the Greek aristocrats, who used some Western ideas .27
But all the creative modification of conservative contemporaries was limited to their radical ideological position. The new was perceived only to the extent and insofar as it did not appear dangerous to the existing order of things. European monarchs (Catherine II, Frederick II) are also known to flirt with the phraseology of the French Enlightenment.
Based on the needs of social development, far-sighted cultural figures in the region under consideration at the stage of Enlightenment developed a consciousness of the need not only to protect national cultural values, but also to increase and enrich them by intensively mastering world cultural achievements, as well as making their own contribution to world culture. In the second half of the 18th century, the historically established system of cultural contacts between peoples within the region and their cultural relations with other European peoples underwent significant changes. The range of such contacts has significantly expanded, and, most importantly, they have received a new social basis and conscious orientation. Previously, the region was clearly divided into two cultural spheres: Catholic and Orthodox. The religious factor was crucial in the interaction of cultures, sometimes giving rise to self-isolation of peoples, especially in conditions of religious suppression. Even closely related Slavic peoples did not know enough about each other's single-dialect literature if it belonged to different confessional areas. From now on, religious ties were replaced by the principle of matching ideas to the stage and level of social needs, and for art, the commonality of artistic method. This was primarily the basis for the perception of the ideas and artistic values of the European Enlightenment by the cultures of the region. The historical role of cultural ties has changed. They became an important factor in the development of national cultures.
Among the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe, cultural exchange had a significant feature: it was seriously influenced by the national question, which complicated the relationship of cultures of various types and different ethnic groups, subordinate and dominant. In the second half of the 18th century, in a number of cases, a conscious opposition of the emerging national culture to the forcibly imposed culture of the oppressors was revealed. Paisios Hilendarsky's reminders to Bulgarians about their native language and calls for liberation from the spiritual hegemony of the Greek clergy are symptomatic. The position of the Hungarian State Assembly in 1790 in favor of the Hungarian language was in a sense a response to the Germanization policy of Joseph II. The formation of national cultures in the Balkans was accompanied by a conscious "cleansing" of their Ottoman heritage .28
At the same time, Austria was the cultural sphere not only of absolutist forces, but also of outstanding thinkers and representatives of the arts.-
26 Gusev Yu. P. The role of literature in the social and political life of Hungary in the late 18th-early 19th centuries. In the collection: Culture and society in the era of the formation of Nations, p. 88 .
27 Logachev K. I. Uk. soch., p. 285.
28 Ivanova Yu. V. Formirovanie kul'turnoi obshchnosti narodov Yugo-Vostochnoy Evropy [Formation of cultural community of the peoples of South-Eastern Europe]. Issue 7, p. 188,
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va. Progressive cultural figures, especially in Central Europe, were strongly influenced by the German Enlightenment. Despite the Hellenization of the Bulgarians, there were also positive Greek-Bulgarian cultural contacts .29 The complexity of the social situation faced by the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe reinforced the importance of the electoral principle in the perception of leading figures of the European cultural foundation.
One of the indicators of increasing cultural contacts between the peoples of the region and other European peoples was the inclusion of most artistic cultures in the European style movement of modern times. At the stage of the Enlightenment, a characteristic feature of the artistic process in Central and South-Eastern Europe was outlined, which was clearly manifested at a later time, the parallel coexistence and interaction of different trends that historically replaced each other in other conditions, and the absence of a struggle between them. This was due to many reasons, not least of which was the intensive development of the artistic experience of other European peoples, the perception of which was prepared by internal development.
The awareness of the need to assimilate the cultural achievements accumulated by mankind was associated with the awakening of public interest in the ancient heritage, understanding the ways and forms of mastering it. Unlike in Western Europe, where the Renaissance revealed the riches of ancient thought and artistic practice, in the vast majority of Central and South-Eastern Europe, the creative development of the priceless ancient heritage began at the stage of Enlightenment, at a different level of public consciousness.
The Renaissance and Reformation in a number of Western European countries fulfilled certain historical tasks and produced (especially the Reformation) a significant shift in the mass consciousness towards freeing it from medieval ideals, traditional norms of thinking and the moral complex. 30 The reformation movements in Central Europe, due to their top-level nature (except for the Czech Republic), did not affect the consciousness of the general population. Therefore, in the region under consideration, the task of its transformation began to be solved at the stage of Education.
The development of nations, and under unfavorable conditions, forced advanced thinkers and cultural figures to turn to the state of national life, the needs of the economy gave rise to the awareness of the need to raise literacy and the general intellectual level of the population, the progress of professional culture led to the idea of expanding the social circle of its perception. The reconstruction of the consciousness of the whole society was considered by the adherents of rationalistic philosophy as a condition for the transformation of life on a" reasonable " basis.
Unlike the Western European representatives of the Enlightenment, progressive cultural figures in Central and South-Eastern Europe at the time under study were not so much engaged in creating philosophical, theoretical-political or sociological constructions designed for the elite consciousness, although this was also the case, as in developing mass ideological complexes. The emphasis was placed on raising the cultural level of the population, freeing ordinary consciousness from superstition and patriarchal moral norms, and general "secularization" of thinking. This has always been combined with the desire to awaken national feelings in the broad strata of society. The Serbian D. Obradovich expressed in 1784 an understanding of their vital importance for every nation
29 Проблеми на Българското възраждаие, с. 20, 21.
30 Zhukov E. M., Barg M. A., Chernyak E. B., Pavlov V. I. Teoreticheskie problemy mirovno-istoricheskogo protsessa [Theoretical problems of the world-historical process]. Moscow, 1979, pp. 263-275.
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catch words: "The people whose hearts do not know what national pride is are and will be forever enslaved!" 31
The historical task of transforming ordinary consciousness ("educating" society, in the understanding of representatives of the Enlightenment), the attitude to literature as the most important tool for intellectual and moral uplift of society, and the social addressee of their writing activities largely determined the nature of new literature. Focusing on the poorly educated, if not at all, segments of the population required a direct and clear conversation with the reader. The artistic and journalistic style of philosophical works, such literary genres as fable, parable, didactic novel, biography, and finally, appeal to folklore were designed to facilitate the dissemination of new ideas and their perception by the middle and lower strata of society. But where there was an educated nobility (Poland, Hungary), literature was distinguished by a richer and more complex artistic palette, prepared for the same by previous development. The state of ordinary consciousness had the opposite effect on the creative sphere.
The dynamics of ordinary consciousness in the second half of the 18th century in the societies of Central and South-Eastern Europe is poorly studied. But we can talk about the formation, if not of a mass, then still a considerable number of readers, not only from the nobles (where they existed) and priests, but also from the intelligentsia in the first generation, merchants, artisans, and students. This was evidenced by the functioning of the periodical press and the distribution of books.
The beginning of the process of forming a national theater culture among most peoples was accompanied by the formation of the audience. The new theater, which was usually born on an amateur basis, was aimed at a wide audience .32
Folklore can provide important material for understanding the consciousness of the masses, but it is practically not studied from this point of view .33
The peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe, in the course of historical development, developed a special type of Enlightenment, which had not only similar, but also distinctive features in comparison with the Western European Enlightenment. At this stage of the historical and cultural process, these peoples were solving a complex of cultural problems in very difficult conditions, some of which were solved in a number of Western European countries during the previous stages, during the Renaissance and Reformation.
The historical significance of the Enlightenment in the development of the peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe consisted in the spiritual preparation of society for solving the problems of transition from feudal to capitalist formation and national liberation.
31 Obradovih D. Sabrana dela. I. Beograd. 1961, p. 323.
32 See Theater in the national Culture of the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe of the XVIII-XIX centuries, Moscow, 1976.
33 See Smirnov Yu. I.O narodnom samosoznanii (po fol'klornykh materialam) [On national self-consciousness (based on folklore materials)]. In: Kul'tura i obshchestvo v epokhu stanovlenii natsii [Culture and Society in the Era of Nation Formation], pp. 55-62.
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