Libmonster ID: BY-3046
Author(s) of the publication: M. M. KUCHERENKO

At all stages of socialist construction, the Communist Party and the Soviet State took special care to create a skilled labor force, which differs from the unskilled in that it "received training and skills in a certain branch of labor"1 . The peculiarity and regularity of the method of solving this problem in our country consisted in the fact that simultaneously industrialization, the socialist transformation of agriculture, and the cultural revolution were carried out in it. V. I. Lenin called on the workers to " fully and accurately know all the conditions of production,.. know the technique of this production at its modern height " 2 . Taking this Leninist instruction into account, the CPSU and the Soviet State are constantly developing various forms of training and education of the working class, which make it necessary to provide the main branches of the national economy with qualified personnel.

A wealth of experience has already been accumulated in this area. Interest in it is growing due to the reform of general education and vocational schools and the solution of problems related to the transfer of the country's economy to the rails of more intensive development.

Soviet social scientists have written many works about the working class. In recent years, there have been published works devoted to a comprehensive study of the most important problems of its development, 3 as well as specific issues or individual stages of its history .4 In a number of works, the issues of training and education of the younger generation of workers were considered .5
1 K. Marx and F. Engels Soch. Vol. 23, p. 182.

2 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 40, p. 215.

3 Changes in the social structure of Soviet society. 1921-mid-1930s, Moscow, 1979; Development of the working class in socialist society, Moscow, 1982; Formation and stabilization of qualified personnel in industry and construction. Novosibirsk. 1982; and others.

4 Selunskaya V. M. Working class and October in the village, Moscow 1968; Shkaratan O. I. Problems of social structure of the working class of the USSR, Moscow 1970; Vdovin A. I., Drobizhev V. Z. Growth of the working class of the USSR, 1917-1940, Moscow 1976; Vorozheikin I. E., Senyavsky S. L. Working class of the USSR-the leading force of the Soviet Union society. M. 1977; Timofeev P. T. Formation of national cadres of the working class of the USSR. M. 1982; et al.

5 Batyshev S. Ya. Formirovanie kvalifitsirovannykh rabochikh kadrov v SSSR [Formation of qualified workers in the USSR]. Training. 1984 M.; Dmitriev, L. N. The party leadership of vocational education among young people. 1917-1936 L. 1978; Kucherenko M. M. Molodoe pokolenie rabochego klassa SSSR [The young generation of the working class of the USSR]. The process of formation and education (1917-1979). M. 1979; Solov'ev N. P. A new stage in the development of the system of vocational education. M. 1980; Essays on the history of vocational education in the USSR. M. 1980; Pilipenko N. N. Formation of qualified workers. M. 1982; Lebina N. B. Molo-

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As a result, the study of the process of forming a skilled labor force in the course of socialist construction has significantly advanced. The sources and forms of recruitment of the working class, the growth of its labor and socio-political activity, discussions on the choice of ways to train qualified labor and the approval of the most rational forms of its vocational education, the dynamics of quantitative growth of labor resources, changes in the social structure of labor recruitment, etc. are thoroughly covered in the literature.

However, the study of the problems of forming a skilled labor force in the 1920s and first half of the 1930s cannot be considered complete. This article attempts to show the activities of the CPSU and the Soviet State in 1921-1936 in the formation of a skilled labor force for the national economy. At the same time, special attention is paid to such poorly studied aspects of the topic as the preservation of the young generation of the working class in production and its professional training; forms and methods of training the labor force, quantitative and qualitative provision of leading sectors of the national economy with workers; state personnel policy and the international nature of the formation of a qualified labor force, the laws of the socialist method of training workers. At the same time, the author proceeds from the fact that the concept of "formation of a qualified labor force" includes a purposeful process of professional training and education of producers of material goods, directed by the Communist Party, improvement of the industry and professional qualification structure of personnel, development of their creative initiative, desire for innovation, responsibility for the assigned task, feelings of Soviet patriotism, etc. international solidarity with workers of all countries.

After the end of the civil war, the Country of Soviets began to revive the economy on a new, socialist basis, to implement profound social transformations, and above all to reorganize labor by gathering and consolidating the working class, raising its cultural and technical level and creative activity. By adopting the new economic policy as the only correct one for the entire transition period from capitalism to socialism, the party strengthened the alliance of the working class and the peasantry, and consolidated the dictatorship of the proletariat. Public ownership of the means of production opened up the possibility of using all the resources and riches of the country to build socialism in it, strengthen its defense capability, and improve the welfare of workers.

During the war, many women and teenagers worked in factories and factories. The share of young people in industry reached 18.5% at that time, but later it declined sharply and in 1922 did not exceed 5.5% .6 The share of women in 1918 was 43.5% of the working class, but in 1922-1924 there was a downward trend: in 1923, the share of women in the metalworking, woodworking, paper and printing, chemical and food industries was on average

power of the Country of Soviets in the 20s. - Questions of history, 1983, N 8; Starikov, I. M. studies of rational methods of young workers. M. 1983; the history of the Soviet working class. Vol. 2. The working class is the leading force in the construction of a socialist society. 1921-1937 Moscow, 1984; Vaxer A. Z., Izmozik V. S. Changes in the social image of the Soviet worker of the 20-30s. - Voprosy istorii, 1984, N 11; et al.

6 Sixth Congress of the Russian Leninist Communist Youth Union. July 12-18, 1924 Stenogr. otch. M.-L. 1924, p. 193.

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29.2%, in 1924-20.4%7 . This happened as a result of the curtailment of military and other types of production, as well as the lack of sufficient raw materials, materials, and equipment. At many enterprises, it was necessary to leave a limited number of workers to carry out repairs, carry out security, and maintain general order. In the context of NEP and self-financing, which was accompanied by an increased labor saving regime, business leaders sought to reduce the unskilled part of it, which was mostly made up of women and teenagers.

According to the census of 1923, in the cities and urban settlements of the RSFSR, the total number of adolescents aged 14-17 years who were not engaged in any work and did not study was 1 million people. Child homelessness reached 300 thousand people8 . This trend was a serious danger. Young people were the part of the working class that was soon to become the main productive force of socialist society. With this in mind, the XI Congress of the RCP(b) wrote in its decisions:: "The preservation of the working youth in production and their protection from forms of excessive exploitation that destroy their physical and spiritual strength is a necessary prerequisite for the further strengthening of the proletarian dictatorship and the development of industry in the Soviet Republic." 9
As the owner of the main means of production, the state took urgent measures to prevent the mass displacement of young workers from the industrial sphere. Having great sensitivity, teenagers could quickly master the basic techniques and methods of work in a particular specialty in the labor collective and become qualified workers by the age of 17-18. On May 2, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted the law "On establishing the maximum minimum number of teenagers in enterprises" (in the working environment it was called the "law on armor"). Depending on the industry of production, the proportion of adolescents that enterprises were required to employ ranged from 2 to 13% of the total number of workers10 . However, the positive effect of the law was not immediately apparent. In those years, the return of personnel workers to enterprises was strongly encouraged, able not only to revive production, but also to train young recruits who had not passed professional training. By the end of 1925, the vast majority of skilled workers who had previously left the enterprises had returned to production. The Fourteenth Congress of the CPSU(b) stated that "the difficult process of declassifying the proletariat has been left behind." 11
The accelerated pace of economic development of the country was accompanied by an increase in the ranks of workers. During the second half of 1924 and the first half of 1925, the number of people employed in industry increased from 1,903. 8 thousand to 2,240 thousand .12 However, a characteristic feature of the labor market in the first half of the 1920s was an excess of unskilled and a lack of skilled labor. Despite the presence of 13% unemployment, the need for skilled labor in industry was 500 thousand people. In Ivanovo-Voznesen-

7 Kamenskiy A. Z. Puti proftekhnicheskogo obrazovaniya i ego znachenie v sovremennoi promyshlennosti [Ways of vocational education and its significance in modern industry]. Moscow, 1925, p. 40; Trudy CSU, Issue XXVI, Moscow, 1926, p. 5 (counting the author).

8 Regulirovanie truda molodezhi [Regulation of youth labor], Moscow, 1926, p. 32.

9 CPSU in resolutions and decisions of congresses, conferences and plenums of the Central Committee. Ed. 8-E. T. 2, p. 357.

10 SU RSFSR, 1922, N 39, Article 447 (counting the author).

11 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 3, pp. 263-264.

12 Podgotovka kvalifitsirovannoi rabochoi sily [Training of qualified labor force], Moscow, 1926, pp. 29-31.

13 Most of the unemployed were unskilled workers. As of September 1, 1925, 1 million people were registered on the labor exchanges (ibid., p. 34).

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Some textile enterprises, for example, were not fully employed due to the lack of a sufficient number of skilled workers14 . A similar situation was observed at a number of enterprises in the chemical, leather, printing and some other industries .15
The process of gathering and consolidating skilled workers resulted in an improvement in the professional and qualification composition of the working class. Thus, the enterprises of the Southern Machine-Building Trust of Ukraine in the first quarter of 1922/23 had 45.5% of qualified workers, and by the beginning of 1924-already 58%. The 1926 census reported that 59.4% of skilled and 26.3% of semi-skilled workers were employed in industry .16
Overcoming the contradiction between the supply and demand of labor force required, firstly, to expand team and individual apprenticeship in production, to improve the system of advanced training, to retrain semi-qualified groups of personnel workers; secondly, to develop all forms of vocational education (FZ schools, vocational schools, vocational courses of all types, training bases of the Central Department of Labor). Institute of Labor (CIT), etc.), paying special attention to the coverage of industrial training for unemployed adults, men and women, as well as adolescents; third, to organize apprenticeships in the handicraft industry, trade cooperation, trade and public catering; fourth, to encourage the desire to obtain a working profession by increasing the real earnings of workers highly qualified specialists, primarily in the field of industrial production.

Team-based individual apprenticeships and course networks in production developed mostly spontaneously. Glavprofobr bodies were limited to collecting information about the presence of a circle network and the number of students. In Moscow and the province, 1,300 men and 700 women were trained in vocational courses and similar forms of vocational training in 192217 . In Ukraine, as early as December 1920, a decree was passed on compulsory training courses for workers who do not have a specialty, aged from 18 to 40 years. If in 1922 there were 90 courses (3,500 students), then in 1924 - more than 120 (6,5 thousand students).18 . The main and then the predominant form of training of skilled workers became FZU schools. At the X Congress of Soviets (December 1922), People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky, speaking about the rapid quantitative and qualitative growth of FZU schools. he stressed that 50% of teenagers are already receiving education in them19 .

In 1922, the First All - Russian Congress on the Education of Adolescent workers and a meeting of representatives of the provincial party committees, convened by the agitation and propaganda department of the Central Committee, were held. RCP (b) on the training of workers in schools FZU 20 . At that time, 80% of the total number of teenagers who joined the national economy under the "law on armor" were trained in stationary vocational educational institutions and directly in production, and 20% were used as

14 Ibid., pp. 13, 31.

15 For more information, see: Gindin Ya. I. Regulation of the labor market and the fight against unemployment, Moscow, 1928; Rogachevskaya L. S. Liquidation of unemployment in the USSR, 1917-1930, Moscow, 1973.

16 Vdovin A. I., Drobizhev V. Z. Uk. soch., pp. 91-92.

17 Kurkin P. I. Moskovskaya rabochaya molodezhi: fizicheskoe razvitie, zdorovye, usloviya truda i byta [Moscow working Youth: physical development, health, working and living conditions]. Moscow, 1923, pp. 26-27 (counting the author).

18 Berezov L. Leninsky Komsomol and school. Kharkiv, 1925, p. 28.

19 The Tenth Congress of Soviets of the RSFSR. Stenogr. otch. M. 1923, p. 150.

20 The First All-Russian Congress on the Education of Adolescent Workers. Theses of reports and resolutions, Moscow, 1922; Central Committee of the Komsomol, f. 1, op. 4, d. 6.

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laborers 21 . It was also necessary to cover them with studies, help them acquire a specialty.

The positive impact of the new economic policy on the recovery of the national economy became more and more obvious. The industry showed an increased demand for skilled labor. At the XII and XIII Congresses of the RCP (b), it was pointed out that the comprehensive development of FSU schools is of paramount importance .22
In comparison with other vocational schools, the development of FZU schools was faster: if in 1922 there were 386 FZU schools and 1089 vocational schools, then on January 1, 1926 - 508 and 250, respectively; the number of students in FZU schools increased from 44.1 thousand to 52.7 thousand, and in vocational schools decreased from 71 thousand to 28.3 thousand. thousands of people. At the turn of 1923-1924, about 70% of all young workers who were trained were trained at fabzavuch23 . However, the total number of vocational schools was still declining, as many vocational schools were transformed by the People's Commissariat of Education into unified first-level labor schools.

Komsomol authorities closely monitored the compliance of enterprises with the "law on armor", as local business managers often violated it. At the beginning of 1923, a commission of representatives of enterprises of the All-Russian Union of Miners even put forward a demand to abolish the mandatory percentage of teenagers in the labor force of various industries. The Central Committee of the Komsomol demanded that the provincial Komsomol committees constantly identify enterprises where the number of teenagers was below the legal limit, seek replenishment to the norm, and also employ young people in those industries that the law did not apply to (mechanical engineering, machine tool construction, defense industry, transport)24 . Issues related to the implementation of the "law on armor" were discussed at the bureau of the Central Committee of the Komsomol in 1922-1923 14 times 25 . Vigorous measures taken by the party and the Komsomol aimed at involving young people in social production began to produce results. From July 1922 to April 1923, the percentage of adolescents in the workplace increased from 5.5 to 6.9, i.e., it was almost equal to the average rate defined by Law 26 . At the All-Union Congress on Workers ' Education (December 1924), it was noted that only in the Russian Federation there were more than 800 stationary vocational educational institutions, in which 55 thousand people were trained .27
By involving young people in social production, the party and the Government took great care to protect their health. On October 13, 1922, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution on conducting periodic medical examinations of all adolescents under the age of 18 working in public and private enterprises and institutions, in order to find out whether the work performed corresponds to their health, transfer them to lighter types of work if necessary, or send those in need to sanatoriums, rest homes, and dispensaries .28 In 1923, 20 thousand teenagers were surveyed in Moscow and the Moscow province, of which 25% were enrolled in FZU schools, about 7-in vocational schools, and a little more than 10% were covered by various forms of apprenticeship.-

21 Regulation of youth labor, pp. 53-54.

22 See the CPSU in resolutions, vol. 2, pp. 485; vol. 3, pp. 115-116.

23 Podgotovka kvalifitsirovannoi rabochoi sily, p. 49; Kucherenko M. M. Uk. soch., p. 63; Shvartz G., Zaitsev V. Molodezh SSSR v tsifrakh [Youth of the USSR in numbers], Moscow, 1924, p. 42; Voprosy truda v SSSR, Moscow, 1958, p. 89.

24 Central Committee of the Komsomol, f. 1, op. 3, d. 2, ll. 219-221; SU RSFSR, 1922, N 39, Article 447.

25 Central Committee of the Komsomol, f. 1, op. 3, dd. 52-185 (author's calculation).

26 Shvartz G., Zaitsev V. Uk. soch., p. 19.

27th All-Union Congress on Workers ' Education. December 15-21, 1924 Moscow, 1924, p. 2 - 12, 39 - 43, 65 - 66.

28 SU RSFSR, 1922, N 65, Article 842.

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production facilities. A significant part of teenagers (17% of boys and 25% of girls) did not study anywhere. In Petrograd, special commissions examined about 14 thousand teenagers and found that more than 50% of them had unsatisfactory housing conditions and nutrition, 18% had no hot food in their diet .29 Similar surveys were conducted in the cities of Siberia, Odessa, Kharkiv, Rostov-on-Don and a number of other places. In its scope and scope, the medical examination of adolescents in 1923 was unprecedented. As a result of the survey, many teenagers received sanatorium vouchers for treatment, coupons for additional meals at factory canteens, were relocated from basement premises to comfortable dormitories, etc.

The involvement of young people in the system of vocational training was one of the channels for implementing the cultural revolution, overcoming illiteracy and general illiteracy of the younger generation. On March 7, 1926, the SNK approved the "Regulations on Vocational Schools", and on March 11, the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) adopted a resolution "On the training and training of the labor force". The "Regulations" defined the tasks of the vocational technical school, set out its charter, which regulated the forms of management of educational institutions, the organization of the educational process. The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) contained an assessment of various forms of training of the labor force, emphasizing that fabzavuch aims to train a "consciously competent, technically qualified worker"30 . The XIV Congress of the CPSU(b) pointed out the need to " take all measures to further expand and improve the organization of the work of fabzavuch schools and all kinds of mass schools and courses that give young people technical knowledge. Industrial training itself must go hand in hand and be inseparable from general and political training. " 31
The CIT played an important role in training workers and promoting the idea of scientific organization of labor. In 1924-1927, he stepped up his work on accelerated training of workers. 32 Employees of the Institute, in particular its director A. K. Gastev, while searching for ways to improve production efficiency, also took up the problem of training workers. In the industrial training methodology developed by the institute, priority was given to taking into account the efforts expended by the worker on individual production operations, his ability to use tools, devices, etc. correctly, without unnecessary movements. This corresponded to Lenin's demand that "scientific achievements should be taken into account in the analysis of mechanical movements in labor, in the elimination of unnecessary and awkward movements, and in the development of the most correct methods of work."33
However, it was impossible to stop there, it was impossible to ignore the importance of general education of young people. "We need carpenters, locksmiths, right away. Definitely. Everyone should become carpenters, locksmiths, and so on, " Lenin wrote. - but with such and such an addition of the general education and polytechnic minimum " 34 .

29 Kurkin P. I. Uk. soch., p. 4 - 5; Trud, zdorovye i byt leningradskoy molodezhi, p. 12 - 19; Zaitsev V. A. Trud i byt rabochikh podrostkov [Work, health and life of Leningrad youth]. Moscow, 1926, p. 9.

30 See: Directives of the CPSU(b) and resolutions of the Soviet Government on public education. Issue 2. Moscow-l. 1947, pp. 23-29; Decisions of the Party and Government on economic issues (1917-1967). Vol.1. Moscow, 1967, pp. 512-514.

31 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 3, p. 291.

32 More than 500,000 workers were trained at its 1,700 training bases (20% of those trained at fabzavuch). in 200 professions and more than 20 thousand instructors of industrial training, consultants on music, etc. (see CIT and its methods of MUSIC, Moscow 1970, p. 33, as well as the works of A. K. Gastev included in this edition).

33 Lenin V. I. PSS. Vol. 36, pp. 189-190.

34 Ibid., vol. 42, p. 230.

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Meanwhile, CIT raised objections to the fabzavuch system. They were reduced to the following: long terms of training due to the overload of curricula with general and general technical subjects, on the one hand, and insufficient time allocated for practical work, on the other; training of workers mainly in the turning and locksmith group without taking into account the need for production personnel in other professions; low quality of training, which does not allow many people to graduates of fabzavuch can work independently in production; high cost of training; low percentage of graduates who are fixed in production (many continued their studies in secondary technical and higher educational institutions). Instead of a factory manager, Gastev proposed to introduce a method of mass training of workers in the skills of the initial stage of production .35
Numerous surveys have shown that CIT's reproaches to fabzavuch were mostly unfounded. The quality of training in FZU schools was higher. If after team-individual training, workers at first showed more skill in performing a narrow operation (and this, in fact, was limited to their training), then fabzavuch graduates, having more versatile and thorough knowledge, after a short practice left far behind those who had completed short-term training. According to a sample survey of graduates of 10 FZU schools conducted in 1924-1925, it was found that 20.7% of them (mainly textile workers, among whom low grades generally prevailed) were charged at enterprises according to the 4th category. The majority of metalworkers (51.8%) had the 5th and 6th categories, 10.7%-the 7th, etc. At the Leningrad plant "Krasny Putilovets", for example, even before the end of the factory in 1925, 50 students performed work on the 7th category; most students, having passed the final exams, received the following qualifications: 8th category. Good reviews about the work of "fabzaytsev" were received from the factories "Bolshevik", Baltiysky, etc. 36 . The CIT's reproaches for the weak establishment of fabzavuch graduates in the production sector were also not justified. In the metal industry, for example, in 1924-1929, 88% of all graduates worked in their specialty, in the textile industry-84.8%, etc. 37 .

The position of the CIT in relation to the FZU schools was supported by some employees of the People's Commissariat of Labor and the All-Union Center of Labor Unions, who argued that the fabzavuch system is too expensive for the state. However, even this statement was not based on facts. According to data for 1925, on average, only 18-20 rubles per month were spent per student in fabzavuch, and in many schools these costs also decreased due to self-sufficiency. A survey of five schools of various industries (textile, confectionery, clothing, woodworking and metalworking) showed that the cost of maintenance and training of 494 students amounted to 150 thousand rubles, and the cost of products issued by them during their training-77 thousand rubles. Consequently, students covered more than half of the funds spent on them by schools and at the same time showed very high labor productivity. Thus, in the Federal Law School at Dedovskaya Manufaktura (Moscow province), the output per pupil reached 102% and even 107% (according to the norms of an adult worker) .38
Supporters of fabzavuch (it was hotly defended by the Komsomol, Glavprofobr, and many business leaders) did not reject the pro-government program.-

35 Gastev A. K. Trudovye ustanovki [Labor installations], Moscow, 1973, p. 33.

36 Pravda, 28. X. 1925.

37 Blinchevsky F. L., Zelenko G. I. Professional and technical education of workers in the USSR, Moscow, 1957, p. 35.

38 Pravda, 22. VI. 1925.

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progressive elements in the methodology used by the CIT training databases. Thus, in 1926, on the instructions of the Scientific and methodological Council of Mosprofobr, popular manuals were published for instructors of industrial training of FZ schools, covering the methods and forms of organizing professional training of workers used by the institute 39 .

In accordance with the decisions of the Fourth Congress of Soviets of the USSR (April 1927), 40 the First All - Union Conference on Vocational Education was convened at the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR in late September-early October 1927. Having listened to the reports of the People's Commissar of the RKI V. V. Kuibyshev and A. V. Lunacharsky on the ways of developing the system of training qualified workers, the meeting participants spoke in favor of transferring all technical educational institutions to economic bodies, since these educational institutions not only existed at enterprises, being their organic component, but were also fully financially supported by them. The People's Commissariat of Education was supposed to have a general methodological guide .41
The XV Congress of the CPSU(b) paid great attention to the training of skilled labor, and in its decisions pointed out the need to adapt the entire national education system to the needs of socialist construction and to create prerequisites for the rapid improvement of the cultural level of the workers .42 FZU schools became an important factor in solving this problem. If in the 1927/28 academic year there were 1,852 educational institutions of this type in the country, in which 153.3 thousand people studied, then in 1931 there were 3,970 FZU schools (975 thousand students).43 . The Central Bureau of Labor Statistics, after conducting a survey of about 20 thousand adolescents employed in production at the end of the recovery period, noted that 27.9% had the 1st category; 34.5% had the 2nd category; 21.1% had the 3rd category; 9.4% had the 4th category; 4.3% had the 5th category; 1.5% had the 6th category; 7th and higher - 1.3%44 .

In the late 20s-first half of the 30s, students of FZU schools were mostly from working-class and peasant backgrounds. At the same time, the number of workers ' immigrants ranged from 67.6% in 1930 to 46.8% in 1932. Accordingly, the proportion of people who came from peasants, who were attracted by the state to study and work in industry, also increased. The educational level of those who entered the university increased. In the 1928/29 academic year, 78.6% of young people had preliminary training in the 4th - 6th grades. In the future, the number of first-level primary school graduates decreased (from 59.1% in 1930 to 32.5% in 1933), while the number of 5th - 7th grade graduates increased (from 36.9% to 62.9%, respectively) .45 This trend meant that conditions were maturing within the working class that would ensure not only the rapid acquisition of new technology by young people, but also the improvement of the professional and qualification structure of the labor force as a whole.

The problem of involving women workers in industrial training also needed to be solved. At the V All-Union meeting of heads of wives-

39 Rostovskiy K. A. Metod CIT i ego primenenie v shkolakh fabzavuch metallopromyshlennosti [The CIT method and its application in schools of the metal industry factory]. Moscow, 1926; Roganov G. N. Trudovaya pedagogika (Obuchenie trudu). Moscow, 1926.

40 Congresses of Soviets of the USSR, Union and Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics. Collection of doc. Vol. IV, part 1. Moscow, 1962, p. 103.

41 The current legislation on the training of qualified labor, Moscow, 1931, p. 26.

42 See CPSU in resolutions, vol. 4, p. 45.

43 Beilin A. Podgotovka kadrov v SSSR za 15 let [Training of personnel in the USSR for 15 years]. Moscow-L. 1932, pp. 30-31; Veselov A. N. Nizshee professional'no - tekhnicheskoe obrazovanie v RSFSR. Moscow, 1955, p. 183; TSA Komsomol, f. 1, op. 5, d.15, ll. 99-100.

44 Za kachestvo shkol ' FZU [For the quality of schools in the Federal Medical University], Moscow, 1932, pp. 3-4; Dmitrieva L. N. Uk. soch., p. 36.

45 New cadres of heavy industry. 1930-1933. M. 1934, p. 106; Universal education, elimination of illiteracy and training of personnel. M. 1930, p. 56-60 (counting the author).

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The Central Committee of the CPSU(b), convened in January 1924, pointed out the need to increase the number of girls sent to vocational courses and schools. Komsomol organizations were invited to expand work on improving the professional skills of girls through FZU schools and vocational schools 46 . However, with a noticeable increase in the number of fabzavuch students, the growth rate of the proportion of women in them was insignificant, and in some Union republics there was even a tendency to reduce the percentage of girls in the composition of students. In Ukraine, for example, in the 1927/28 academic year, the share of girls in the number of students in FZU schools was 21.6%, and in 1928/29-only 18%; in the RSFSR - 12.2 and 5.7%, respectively .47 On August 1, 1928, the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) adopted a resolution "On the situation of girls in the workplace, at school and on the work of the Komsomol among girls", in which it demanded to step up work to involve them in the system of vocational and technical education .48
The importance of these measures was due to the fact that the rate of overall growth of women in the national economy significantly outstripped the rate of their professional training. In 1928, the share of women in large-scale industry was 28.7%, and in 1936 it was already 40.1%. At the same time, the share of women among students of the FSU heavy Industry schools practically remained at the same level: 26-32% - in 1929-1933. In other branches of production, this indicator was slightly higher: in schools of the Federal State Educational Institution of the Chemical Industry-47.5%; in Leningrad, for garment workers-63%, for textile workers-47%. The XVI Congress of the CPSU(b) recommended that special attention should be paid to the involvement of women in production, their training and retraining in various schools and courses. 49
In the second half of the 1920s, the desire to obtain a working profession among representatives of various nationalities significantly increased. In 1928, for example, their share in the composition of students in vocational schools in the North Caucasus reached 25%; in Siberia-18%; in the Middle Volga region-14%; in the Central Chernozem region-24%, etc. In the Union republics, the prevalence of indigenous people gradually emerged among students of FZU schools: in Ukraine in 1930-57.3%, in Belarus-59.2%, in the Uzbek SSR-57.5%, and so on. As of January 1, 1933, there were 67.6% Russians, 19.2% Ukrainians, and 13.2% representatives of other nationalities in the schools of the Federal State Educational Institution of Heavy Industry of the USSR .50 The data provided indicate that access to mastering the working profession was open to representatives of all nationalities. However, by the beginning of the 1930s, in a number of Union republics, the professional training coverage of representatives of individual peoples was insufficient. This applied, for example, to those of them, a significant part of which led a nomadic lifestyle.

The difficulty in training representatives of small nations was also the lack of indigenous personnel who could pass on knowledge to students in their native language. I should have prepared these

46 Heirs of the revolution. Party documents on the Komsomol and Youth, Moscow, 1969, pp. 103, 205, 206.

47 Universal education, literacy and training, p. 58.

48 Weekly Magazine of the People's Commissariat of Education, 1928, No. 38, p. 3.

49 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 4, p. 465; Changes in the social structure of Soviet society. 1921-mid-1930s, p. 201; New cadres of heavy industry. 1930-1933, p. 107; Veselov A. N. Professional and technical education in the USSR, Moscow, 1961, p. 190; Dmitrieva L. N. Uk. soch., p. 37; Beilin A. Uk. soch., p. 43.

50 Materials on statistics of vocational and technical education. Issue 3. Moscow-L. 1929, p. IX-X; Training of personnel in the USSR, 1927-1931. Moscow, 1933, p. 29; New cadres of heavy industry. 1930-1933, from 104.

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frames. That is why the formation of a skilled labor force in the national republics was carried out along two lines. On the one hand, qualified personnel from the industrial regions of the RSFSR, the Donbass and other places were sent here; on the other, some local residents were trained in their chosen profession in Moscow, Leningrad, Kharkiv, and Sverdlovsk. The 17th Congress of the CPSU(b) noted that Leningrad alone sent 7.5 thousand skilled workers to the republics in 1932-1933, who helped not only build new industrial buildings, but also create national cadres of the working class , 51 instilled in them a socialist labor culture, and passed on the revolutionary traditions of the Russian proletariat.

The system of forming a qualified labor force assumed not only the training of good specialists, but also the education of active builders of a new life. Since their inception, the FZU schools have been mainly attended by Communists and Komsomol members. Thus, in the 1926/27 academic year, there were 65.5% of fabzavuch contingents, and in 1929/30 - 67.8%. At the beginning of the 1930s, on average, Komsomol members among fabzavuch students ranged from 60 to 70%, and in some schools - up to 95%. Most of the young people in the course of training joined the Komsomol. Komsomol members-graduates of FZU schools, having come to production, were prepared for joining the party faster than non-Union youth. Thus, in 1931, among former factory workers over the age of 22 were communists: in metallurgy-40%, in mechanical engineering-50%52 . This indicates that the FZU school was the leading form not only of professional training, but also of communist education of the young working population. Assistant principals for political and educational work played an important role in the fabzavuch system. They helped strengthen the party and Komsomol organizations, conducted propaganda and organizational work. The scope of their activities was determined at an All-Union meeting of these workers held in the summer of 1936.53

The success of educational work in fabzavuch was determined by the composition of engineering and pedagogical personnel. Back in 1921, the Board of the People's Commissariat of Education adopted the Main Provisions on the Main Committee for the Training of Vocational Education Workers, whose task was to comprehensively develop the system of training and advanced training of engineering and pedagogical personnel. Since 1923, the Moscow Industrial and Pedagogical Institute has been operating. However, at first, neither he nor the one-year courses that existed at a number of universities in Moscow and Leningrad could solve the problem of personnel. According to the results of the All - Union school census of December 15, 1927, in schools of the Federal State Educational Standard and the Federal State Educational Standard type, teachers with higher education accounted for 47.3% of the total number, with incomplete higher education - 16.9%, secondary - 24.1%, incomplete secondary - 1.3%, lower and home-10.4%. Among the masters of industrial training, only 2.8% had higher education, 1.3% had incomplete higher education, 5.4% had secondary education, 2.9% had incomplete secondary education, and 87.6% had lower and home education. In the Urals, for example, in 1933, among the instructors of industrial training were 56% of former factory workers and 31% of workers-practitioners with lower education 54 . About 40% of all teachers worked part-time. Only for half of them teaching was the main job,

51 XVII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (b). Stenogr. otch. M. 1934 p. 254.

52 Za kachestvo shkoly FZU, p. 6; Kucherenko M. M. Uk. soch. p. 71.

53 Central Administration of the Komsomol, f. 1, op. 3, d. 161, ll. 7-13.

54 All-Union School Census 15 / XII-1927 Vol. 2. Moscow, 1930, p. XLIII; FZU and PTK on perestroika. Issue 2. Kharkiv, 1934, p. 75.

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the rest were employed in various positions in the national economy. The party stratum among engineering and pedagogical personnel was quite significant. According to the data of the 1930/31 academic year, in the whole country it was 23%, in Ukraine in 1933-38%55 .

The November (1929) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b), after analyzing the implementation of the decisions of the July (1928) Plenum of the Central Committee on the training of technical cadres, set the task "to strengthen in every possible way in the coming years the training of cadres of practical production managers from among the most advanced workers by systematically promoting them from the lowest command positions to the highest" 56 . This resolution has played a positive role in improving the quality of engineering and pedagogical personnel in the workforce training system. Many specialists moved from production to work in FZU schools, professional schools, headed technical courses in production and thereby contributed to solving the problem of forming a qualified labor force.

The quality of training of workers largely depended on the state of the educational and material base. In the 1920s, it was still very weak in the professional education system. FZU schools, for example, took advantage of the fact that they were provided by basic enterprises that financed the training of workers. In order to streamline the financing of labor training, on February 5, 1925, the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR issued an order signed by its chairman, F. E. Dzerzhinsky, on the procedure for accounting for the cost of vocational training of workers .57 The order contained instructions according to which, starting from the 1925/26 academic year, all forms of labor training were transferred to a fixed estimate of the Supreme Economic Council. The introduction of a single centralized financing system contributed to the creation and development of a stable material and technical base for working training.

In heavy industry alone, the cost of maintaining and developing the factory in 1931-1933 amounted to 241 million rubles. During this time, 450 new schools were built for 176 thousand students. Fabzavuch developed especially rapidly in the Urals. In 1930-1931, 15 million rubles were spent on the construction of new schools here. There were large educational institutions at the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant, Kalatinskaya, Lysvenskaya, Bereznikovskaya and a number of other FZU schools. In 1933, 77 such schools operated in the heavy industry of the Urals, with 21.8 thousand students .58 Many students of the Federal Law School participated in the construction of new factories, and after graduation they created the backbone of the working class of enterprises that were put into operation.

Funding for the training of skilled workers directly at the factory was also streamlined. On January 16, 1925, the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR and the All-Union Council of Trade Unions approved a special circular "On conducting brigade and individual apprenticeship", which indicated that when working with a master or in a team, apprentice assistants participate in the distribution of additional earnings. Before receiving the category, payment was made at the tariff rate; after assigning the category, the worker switched to piecework payment. For the training of young workers, masters, instructors and qualified workers received an additional payment according to the standards agreed with the factory committees; for the successful training of new employees-

55 Training of personnel in the USSR, 1927-1931, p. 34; FZU and PTK on perestroika. Issue 2, p. 75.

56 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 4, p. 337.

57 Trade and Industrial Newspaper, 11. II. 1925.

58 New cadres of heavy industry. 1930-1933, pp. 7, 27, 106.

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bonus remuneration was provided for all employees 59 .

The party and government resolutions on school adopted in the first half of the 1930s were of great importance for improving the formation of a skilled labor force, which helped to eliminate shortcomings in the training of workers in the fabzavuch system and in production, 60 in particular, the enthusiasm for the laboratory-team method of training and the system of free collective promotion of teams that the labor force. The resolution noted that the main form of organization of educational work should be a lesson, with a strictly defined schedule of classes and a firm composition of students. All this strengthened their organization, discipline, and increased the effectiveness of training.

Measures taken by party, Komsomol, and trade union organizations to create a qualified labor force have begun to produce positive results. The level of theoretical and industrial training in fabzavuch has started to noticeably increase. This was largely due to the emergence of the State of Emergency in January 1932. All-Union competition of FZU schools. Already in the first year of the competition, academic performance in these educational institutions reached 90-95%, in the 1933/34 academic year in industrial training - 99%, in theoretical training-99.2%. About 60% of the students had only good and excellent grades. The FZU school at KhTZ, for example, worked under the motto: "An advanced enterprise should have an exemplary factory teacher!". Here, according to the results of the 1933/34 academic year, the academic performance in theoretical education was 99.1%, and in industrial education-99.4%. An indicator of the high quality of personnel training was the implementation of the production plan by 109%61 .

In the conditions of the unfolding offensive of socialism on the entire front, planning the reproduction of skilled labor, improving the terms and forms of its training, has become an objective necessity. The Central Committee of the CPSU(b) entrusted the People's Commissariat of Labor of the USSR and its local bodies with general planning, regulation, control, operational management of the training of labor and supervision of its proper use in production .62
At the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, party and government resolutions were adopted that helped solve the problem of forming a skilled labor force under the conditions of the socialist reconstruction of the national economy. Among them are the resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b): of December 5, 1929- "On the growth of cadres of the working class, the state of unemployment and measures to reduce it"; of October 20, 1930- "On measures for the planned provision of the national economy with labor and the fight against turnover"; of May 25, 1931 -"On setting up production and technical propaganda"; Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of November 10, 1929 - " On the planned provision of State industry

59 Commercial and Industrial Newspaper, 17. I. 1925.

60 See the resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b): "On primary and secondary schools" of August 25, 1931; "On educational programs and regimes in primary and secondary Schools" of August 25, 1932; " On Textbooks for primary and secondary schools "of February 12, 1933; " On the Teaching of civil Aviation". history in schools of the USSR "of May 16, 1934;" On the introduction in primary and secondary schools of an elementary course of general history and history of the USSR "of July 9, 1934;" On pedological perversions in the system of People's Commissariat of Education " of July 4, 1936; resolution of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR "On educational programs and regime in higher education and technical schools " of September 19, 1932; resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On the organization of educational work and internal regulations in primary, incomplete secondary and secondary schools" of September 3, 1933 - Directives of the CPSU(b) and resolutions of the Soviet Government on public education. Sat. doc. for 1917-1947, Issue 1. Moscow-L. 1947, pp. 151-193; SZ SSSR, 1932, N 68, Article 409.

61 Federal laws and technical regulations on perestroika. Issue 2, p. 27.

62 See the CPSU in resolutions, vol. 4, p. 371.

page 32

and transport by labor in 1929/30"; of January 11, 1930 - "On the plan for providing factories with qualified labor" 63 .

The construction of a large number of new factories and factories, and the reconstruction of the entire national economy based on new equipment have led to an increased demand for labor, especially skilled ones. The elimination of unemployment in the USSR led to the fact that the booking of teenagers in the workplace, carried out in the 20s, lost its significance. The new conditions, the IX Congress of the Komsomol noted, required the planned coverage of young people with all forms of working education, and above all with the factory teacher .64
After the XVI Congress of the CPSU(b) and the XVII All-Union Party Conference, the patronage of skilled workers over young people developed in enterprises. A wide response in the country was received by the distributors of the Kerch Voikov plant (July 1931) to all cadre workers with an appeal to organize patronage over newcomers .65 The initiative was supported by workers of the Novotagil plant, Rostselmash, Kharkiv Tractor Plant and others. Cytovsky brigades have become widespread at enterprises, which have become a good school for labor and training workers in mass professions. In the Donbass, for example, these brigades declared war on the problems revealed in the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) of April 8, 1933 "On the work of the coal industry of Donbass"66 . Within the framework of the Cytovsky brigades, the training of workers has taken on a wide scale. In 1931-1933, more than 700,000 people received professions through the course network at heavy industry enterprises alone .67
However, the length of training and the large number of Fabzavuch graduates entering higher and secondary educational institutions, 68 on the one hand, the huge scale of construction, which imposed an increased demand for workers, on the other, led to the fact that the rate of influx of skilled labor into industry slowed down by 1933. The problem of eliminating the shortage of personnel dictated the need for a sharp reduction in the duration of training of young people in fabzavuch. On August 16, 1933, the People's Commissar of Heavy Industry G. K. Ordzhonikidze signed an order "On the restructuring of schools of the Federal State Educational Institution". The period of study in them was limited to six months, young men and women aged 15-16 with a seven-grade education were accepted for study, graduates were required to work in production for at least three years. 69 The transfer of Federal Law schools for a six-month period of study was legalized by the decree of the Central Election Commission and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of September 15, 1933. Training was approaching production conditions: 80% of the training time was devoted to classes in the specialty directly at the machine, 20% - to theoretical training in the chosen specialty 70 .

Later, it was discovered that the complex nature of industrial production did not make it possible to train a specialist capable of servicing new machines and mechanisms in six months. Not

63 Ibid., pp. 368-378; Current legislation on the training of qualified labor. M. 1931, pp. 9-10; SZ USSR, 1929, N 71, Article 676; 1930, N 6, Article 69; Handbook of the Party worker. M. 1934, p. 383.

64 IX All-Union Congress of the Komsomol. Stenogr. otch. M. 1931, p. 58.

65 Organize patronage of cadre workers over newcomers. Moscow, 1932, pp. 5-7.

66 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 5, pp. 91-97.

67 New cadres of heavy industry. 1930-1933, p. 9.

68 For higher education institutions and technical schools of the People's Commissariat of Labor Industry, for example, in the contingent accepted in 1932, there were more than 1/3 of graduates of FZU schools (Veselov A. N. Nizshee professional'no-tekhnicheskoe obrazovanie v RSFSR, p. 184).

69 the Collection of materials for the reorganization of the schools trade schools. M. 1933, p. 10 - 11.

70 See Decisions of the Party and Government on economic issues. 1917-1967. Vol. 2. Moscow, 1967, pp. 438-441.

page 33

the pre-graduate courses created in 1932 for the purpose of preliminary preparation of young people for admission to fabzavuch could also solve the problems. However, the implementation of the resolution of the Central Election Commission and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR helped to overcome the difficulties with the reproduction of the labor force in the country. When the general shortage of personnel noticeably decreased, the government revised the terms of training in schools of the Federal Law and by a decree of August 22, 1935, allowed the People's Commissariat of Labor Industry to extend them in the most complex specialties to one and a half, and in some industries - up to two years .72 Industrial enterprises that came into operation during the first and second five-year plans and were equipped with the latest technology showed an increased demand for highly qualified labor. It is in the light of these requirements that we should consider the return of most FZS for one-and-a-half, two -, and some for a three-year period of study.

The pace of socialist industrialization took on an unprecedented scale; by the beginning of 1936, the number of the working class had increased almost 2.5 times compared to 1928, and the influx of workers and employees into the national economy during the first two five-year plans amounted to approximately 25 million people .73 However, until the beginning of the 1930s, the system of training and advanced training of workers directly in production was not defined clearly enough. Each company trained personnel in its own way. Despite the rapid growth of the network of FSU schools, various technical courses and production circles (in industry, for example, out of 6 million workers, more than 1 million people were enrolled in various forms of technical training by 1933), the influx of new, untrained labor force sharply outstripped its professional training. In 1932/33, 85-90% of new workers did not work before entering production .74
Taking into account the current situation, on June 30, 1932, the Council of Labor and Defense adopted a decree "On compulsory training of workers servicing complex aggregates, installations and mechanisms", obliging the heads of enterprises to introduce a technical minimum for workers in almost all professions. 75 The introduction of a mandatory technical minimum led to the fact that production and technical courses were replaced by new forms of technical training of the labor force in production, unprecedented in mass scale: technical minimum circles, circles of innovators of production, etc.At the beginning of 1934, the All-Union Voluntary Society "For Mastering Technology"was organized. By the end of the year, it had more than 1.5 million members .76
Activities related to the organization of a nationwide campaign for technical knowledge corresponded to the decisions of the XVII Congress of the CPSU (b), in particular, the task of training 5 million workers in mass professions during the second five-year plan77 . The December (1935) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), after analyzing the first results of the unfolding mass technical universal education, indicated that it fully justified itself. Out of 797050 workers who passed the state technical exam in 255 leading specialties, many Stakhanovites came out .78 In their memoirs, A. G. Stakhanov, N. A. Izotov, I. I. Gudov, A. Kh. Busygin, M. N. Mazai unanimously admit that only hard study, mastery of-

72 NW OF the USSR, 1935, N 48, Article 405.

73 The leading role of the working class in the reconstruction of industry in the USSR, p. 72; Vdovin A. I., Drobizhev V. Z. Uk. soch., p. 108 (counting the author).

74 National economy of the USSR. Sb. N 3. Moscow, 1950, p. 268; Federal Law and Technical Documentation on Perestroika. Issue 3. Kharkiv, 1934, p. 8.

75 NW OF the USSR, 1932, N 51, Article 311.

76 History of the working class of Uzbekistan, vol. I. Tashkent, 1964, p. 220.

77 CPSU in resolutions, vol. 5, p. 140.

78 Ibid., pp. 236-237.

page 34

their use of advanced labor methods allowed them to achieve such high performance in production 79 .

Only fabzavuch during the first two five-year plans gave the country about 2 million skilled workers. At the same time, about 2.5 million people were trained in the industry of the USSR through brigade - individual apprenticeship .80 From year to year, the system of professional development of the labor force was improved. Along with the development of a special course network, schools of excellence were created, and training and production complexes were created at large enterprises. Technical universal education took on a truly nationwide character. In the two years of the second five-year plan alone, in industry, transport, construction, and communications, 6 million workers were enrolled in the first cycle of technical universal training, 2.5 million in the second cycle, and more than 0.4 million in the courses of masters of socialist labor. 81 All this contributed to an increase in labor productivity. In 1928-1936, the average annual growth rate was 11.5%. In 1935 and 1936, this increase was particularly noticeable: 15.6% and 21.4%, respectively .82
As a result of the great organizational activity of the heads of enterprises, party, trade union and Komsomol organizations, the movement for the mastery of workers ' specialties made it possible to solve the problem of skilled labor in the main. Already during the first five - year plan, 11 million people were trained in mass professions, and over 16 million people were trained in 1936-1939 . The regularity of socialist construction was the constant increase in the number of workers who had passed vocational training; improvement of its sectoral and professional qualification structure. If in 1925 there were only 18.5% of highly skilled and skilled workers in the USSR industry, then in 1937 it was already 40.5% .84 In 1928-1934, the number of machine builders in the national economy tripled, turners and locksmiths-5 times, equipment adjusters-15 times, welders - 14 times, etc. 85 . If in the 1920s the qualification level of the labor force significantly lagged behind the needs of the structure of jobs, then by the mid-30s, based on the growth of the cultural and technical potential of workers, these levels noticeably leveled off.

By the mid-1930s, the Soviet working class had developed and steadily increased an internal pool of high-class specialists capable of raising the training and education of young people to a qualitatively new level. The realization of this opportunity was the creation of a system of state labor reserves in the country, which played a major role in the reproduction of skilled labor on the eve, during the Great Patriotic War and in the post-war period.

79 Izotov I. A. My life, my work. Kharkov, 1934; Stakhanov A. G. The Story of my Life, Moscow, 1937; Gudov I. I. The Way of a Stakhanovite, Moscow, 1938; Busygin A. H. Zhizn moya i moi druzhby, Moscow, 1939; Mazay M. N. Zapiski stalevara, Moscow, 1940.

80 Formation and Development of the Soviet working class (1917-1961), p. 90; Socialist Construction in the USSR, Moscow, 1936, p. 516; Industrialization of the USSR, 1933-1937. Doc. Moscow, 1971, p. 515 (counting the author).

81 Industrializatsiya SSSR [Industrialization of the USSR], 1933-1937, p. 503.

82 The leading role of the working class in the reconstruction of industry in the USSR, p. 93 (author's calculation).

83 Kozlova O. V. Rise of the cultural and technical level of the working class of the USSR. M. 1959, p. 55; Essays on the history of the Soviet working class. M. 1966, p. 165; Industrialization of the USSR. 1938-1941. M. 1973, p. 246 (counting the author).

84 Trud i zarabotnaya platya v SSSR [Labor and wages in the USSR], Moscow, 1968, p. 126.

85 Labor productivity in the industry of the USSR. M.-L. 1940, pp. 58, 211.

page 35


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